| |
International Medieval
Congress
Universtiy of Leeds
8-11 July2002
Hohenstaufen And
Their Arab Subjects
And Moslems Against Excommunication
By
Prof. Mahinoud Said Omaran
University of
Alexandria
Faculty of Arts
Alexandria -
Egypt
The conflict between the Empire and the Papacy started
before
Hohenstaufen dynasty, it had a great effect in medieval
Europe and the Crusades, and divided the Europians into
parties, Ghibellines which supported the Emperor and the
Guelfs which backed the Papacy. This research goes in three
directions, an introduction, the relationships between
Hohenstaufen rulers and the Moslems ruler in Egypt and
Syria, and with Moslem subjects in Sicily and south Italy.
There are three reasons for this conflict, the first was the
lay Investiture, the second was the failure of the fifth
Crusade, and the third was the suzerainty for some territory
in Italy and Sicily.
It we starte from Charlemagne king of the Franks who hold
the Imperial title since 800, we can remarke that title was
a mixed blessing. No European ruler asked for this title
except the German , so the Pope who granted this title must
be on good terms with the German ruler. (1),
-2-
Anthor critical point started in the relation between East
and the West. The Byzantine Empire was ruled for the first
time in its history by an Empress. Irene, mother of the
Emperor Constatin VI (680-97), had deposed her son, had him
blinded, and ascended the throne herself. Thus Charlemagne
could argue with some justice that the Imperial office was
legally vacant since 476, and that by assuming the crown he
became the sole Roman Emperor. Irene at first refused to
recognize her rival, and the two Empires stood face to
face(2).
When was the year 862 Otto I of Germany (936-73) revived the
westen Empire of Charlemagne by assuming dignity, the
Byzantine Emperor Romanus V (959 - 963) was less
alarmed by his new title by his ambition to absorb the
Emperor’s Italian possessions. For ten years, the two
Emperos waged war upon each other in southern Italy without
much success on either side. In 972 peace was made by
marriage between Theophana, daughter of Romans II and the
future Emperor Otto II. The later (973-83), who continued
his father’s effors to drive the Moslems from southern
Italy, and to absorbe the Byzantine cities, but he had no
great success in either project. When he died, Otto III
(983-1002) was a minor in the custody of his mother
Theophano. He became essentially a Byzantine prince, and
planned to make Rome the capital of his Empire. The death of
Otto III ended for some time the close relations between the
two Empires. His successors Henry II (1002-1024) as king of
Germay were far too busy at home the show much interest in
Italy, and the Byzantine rules confined their Itatian
activities to portect their lands form the Moslems(3).
After a short time, the Normans came to Italy to seek their
fortune in the south about 1036, an elder group consisting
of William of the Iron Arm,
-3-
Drogo, Humphery, and a younger set of half-brothers, of
whom, the most important are Robert Guiscard and Roger.
William was chosen leader, or count, by the other Normans
and on his death in 1046 succeeded by Drogo, who was soon
afterward invested with the country by Emperor Henry III
(l029-l056) That was meant that the westen Emperor still had
the Upper hand in Italy, and in the meantine this behavior
had ennoyed the Papacy.
So In 1059 Pope Nicholas 11(1059 - 1061) hold the
Lateran counicl which issued a decree, about the Papal
Elections (5) The most important event in this year,
was that it was agreed that Pope Nicolas II should hold
another council in the same year at the Norman&
hill-fortress of Melfi, attended by the higher clergy of the
south and also by the two chief Norman princes, Richard of
Aversa and Robert guiscard. They agreed to hold their
conquests as a fiefs of the Roman See and to do homage for
their territories to the Pope. Richard was recognized by the
Pope as Prince of Capua, and Guiscard as Duke of Apulia, of
Calabria, and of the island of Sicily when- over he shoud
have conqured it form the Byzantins and Moslems. In return
for these titles, which the Pope solemnly bestowed upon
them, the Normans swore to uphold the rights and potect the
possessions of the Roman See
(6).
Another quarrel lasted for a long time about the lay
investiture, between the Papacy and Impire, in 1122, Emperor
Henry V (1106-1152) saw the necessity of becoming reconilend
to the lawful Pope if peace was to be restored to the
Empire, Terms of reconciliation were accordingly disucssed
at several German diets in the presence of Papal envoys. At
length in September in 1122, the famous Concordat of Worms
was signed in that city in the presence of a great assembly.
Two documents were drawn up, the one being signed by the
Emperor and the other by the pope. The Emperor pomised to
-4-
abandon his claim to investiture with the ring and crozier,
and agreed to the freedom of election to all episcopal sees
throughout the Empire. The Pope in his side, promised that
elections of bishops and abdots should take place in the
presence of the Emperor or his representatives. The elected
Prelates were to be invested by the Emperor, with the
temporalities of their Sees, by the touch of the scepre,
immediately after their election if it took place in
Germany, but if elswhere, then within six months after
consecration (7) .
Robert then set to work to conquer the country held by the
Byzantine Empire and set his brother Roger 1(1061 - 1101) to
invade Sicily. Both brothers were succesful. In 1071 the
fall of Ban gave Robert the last Byzantine possession in
southen Italy, and in the next year the two brothers
combined their forces to take Palermo. In 1091 Roger
conpieted the conquest of sicily(8).
In 1130 Roger II count and king of Sicily (1101 - 1154) took
advantage of the disputed election of the Papacy to obtain
from Pope Aracletas III the dignity of king; and on
christmas Day 1130, he was crowned and anointed at Palermo,
taking henceforth the title by the Grace of God King of
Sicily, Apulia, and Calabria, help and shield of the
Christians, heir and son of the great Robert” (9)
.
The Norman’s kingdom thus established was a most remarkbable
structure, for it combind the feudal custom of northern
France with institutions drawn form various parts of the
Mediterranean. Its rulers, who commonly spoke a French or
Italian vernacular, kept their official records in three
other Languages: Latin, Greek and Arabic. The polyglot
population included Jews and Moslems together with
Christians of both the Roman and the communions - all living
under their own law and enjoying religious
-5-
toleration. And loyal men of any faith were accepted for the
king’s civil service (10)
.
Castleguard and coastguard were owed in addition to the
regular service, the King controlling all castles and the
building of them. The fleet, which played so larg a part in
Roger’s military arrangement, was made up of ships and
mariners supplied by certain feudatories and by the maritime
cities, though the crews were largely Moslems and Moslem
mercenaries were also continuosly employed in both the navy
and the army (11)
.
The Siclian court, like the kingdome, was many-tongued and
cosmopolitan, Its praises being sung alike by Arabic
travellers and poetes, by grave Byzantine ecciesiastics, and
by Latin scholars of Italy and the North of Europe. Edrisis
prepard under Roger’s direction the greatest treatise of
Arabic geography, celebrated long afterward as “king’s
book”(12).
The Arabs in Sicily and South Italy, specially in Lucera
(Oucera), are a cornerstone in this paper. Ibn Jubayr gives
us a good account of the Arab state in this region about
1184. He gives us valuable Information about king William II
(1166-89) and says; he had known the Arabic language, very
fair and permitted the motley population of his kingdom to
live their old lives under their old laws. The Arabs of
Sicily who had faithfully supported the Normans, continued
in their former abodes, occupying separate districts in the
cities, worshipping without hindrance in their numerous
mosques, and still governed in the petty matters of
every-day life by their own judges after the laws of Islam.
William II and Roger coins held and Islamic religious terms.
Ibn Jubayr records also some lines about the William II
expedition which had attacked Salonica in 1185 and his using
to the Arabic armies in this taks(13).
-6-
The Hohenstaufen
daynasty (1138 - 1268) stareted by King conrad III (1138-52)
who was not strong ruler. We can sea no relationship between
him and the Moslem subjects in the Eeast and the Sicily. He
had died before he received the crown of the Empire. His
successor Frederick Barbarossa (1152
- 1190), appointed three anti-Popes to appose pope Alexander
III (1159-81), but the Normans in Sicily supported
the pope(14).
In 1166 William I king of Sicily (1154-66) died after he had
just sent an army to restore Pope Alexander III to Rome.
William II (1166-89) ascended the throne under the regency
of his mother Margaret of Navarre. A baronial rebellion
marked the inauguration of the new reign, and a council of
ten was set up to govern the kingdom in which the chief
power soon passed to the Englisman, Walter, archbishop of
Palermo. Under his guidance, Sicily and the Lombard league
maintained its support of Alexandr III against Frederik
Barbarose in Novembe 1166 the battle of Legnano (1176), and
the peace of venice (1177) brought an end to the conflict.
Thereafter the Sicilian government made peace with the
German Empire, even allying with it in the marriage of
Henry, the son of Frederk, to Constance the aunt of king
William in 1186, and the king had the barons swear to accept
constance as Queen in case of his death without issue(15).
This meant that the popes could no longer look to Sicily for
the protection against the Emperor.
Therefore, the Pope Urban III (1185-7) refused to crown
Henry Emperor during his father’s lifetime, or even to
bestow on him the iron crown of Lombardy. Frederick caused
his son to be crowned king of Lombardy on the very day of
his marriage to Constance by the Archbishop of Aquileia. For
this reason and aother the Pope threatened to excommunicate
the Emperor. In the next year the Pope died (1 187)(16).
After three years the Emperor took the
-7-
cross to take part in the third Crusade, but the died in
Asia Mionr in 1190(17). Frederick tired to bring the
medieval German Empire to its height of power and prestige.
Till his death he was not on good terms with the Moslem’s
rulers in the East or in touch with Moslems in Sicily.
Pope Clement III died in the next year (1191), and Celestine
III became Pope after him (1191-98) in the end of March
1191. Henry VI became king of Germany (1191-7) after his
father and headed for Rome in the same month to receive the
Imperial crown. It was his target after his coronation to
proceed to Sicily and South Italy to which he laid claim
through his wife, because William II having died without
hens. The Sicilians had, however, chosen Tancred count of
Lecce, an illegitimate grandson of Roger, king of Sicily
(1194). The Pope supported Tancred on condition that he
recognized as overlord of Sicily, which was to be held as a
Papal fief(18).
Henery VI had proceeded to South Italy after his coronation,
where he got some success, but was later defeated by
Tancred. Henry VI then retreated to Germany, leaving his
wife Constance in Salerno, but she soon fell a captive in
the hands of Tancred who treated her with the greatest
courtesy, and at the request of the Pope she was permitted
to return to Germany loaded with gifts. After the death of
Tancred in 1194, Henry VI again proceeded to Sicily. He now
met with little or no opposition, and marched to Palermo,
where he was
acknowledeged king of sicily at christmas 1194. shortly
afterwards he ordered a cruel massacre of all the sicilian
nobility , and superior clergy. all the descendants of the
norman kings of sicily were either exceuted or multilated
along with the bishops , for this atrocious deed the pope
pronounced a solemn sentence of excommunication against
henry, who,however,scoffed at the papal ban, and returned in
triumph to germany.
-8-
In 1197 the Emperor Henry VI returned to southern Italy in
order to repress a revolt against his authrity. So cruel was
his treatment of his subjects that the Empress is said to
have interposed, though without effect, on their behalf.
Pope Celestine III seems to have been powerless to
interfere, and Rome was at this time suffering from a famine
which Henry refused to relieve. While in Sicily Henry was
seized with fever, and died at Messina on 28th September
1187, at the age of thirty-two. Pope Celestine refused to
allow the body of Henry to receive Christian burial, until
he had first ascertained that the money extorted for
Richard’s ransom was to be restored by Henry’s successor.
Celestine then released the dead Emperor from
excommunication, and the body was buried in great state at
Palermo. Pope Celestine III died in Rome of 8th January
1198. He was buried in the Lateran church, at the end of the
north aisle near the Chapel of Sta. Maria di Riposo(19).
The vacancy in the Empire caused by the death of Henry VI in
1197 was taken advantage of by Innocent to assert his
authority in Imperial affairs. Henry’s widow, Constance, who
ruled Sicily for the two-year-old son Frederick, finding
herself unable to cope with the Norman barons of the south
appealed to Pope Innocent, and was soon induced to
acknowlege the Pope as overlord of Sicily. In a bull issued
in November 1198, Innocent confirmed his investitue of the
infant Frederick as king of Sicily. On 28the November 1198
the Empress Constance died, having on her death-bed
appointed Pope Innocent III Regent of Sicily and guardian of
her son. In the same year Honorins (1216 - 1227) the next
Pope had been made tutor to the future Emperor Frederick II.
In view of the troubled state of the Empire and the
inability of the young prince to rule, Philip of Suabia, the
brother of Henry VI, had been elected king of the Romans by
the Ghibelline, or Imperial party, in March 1198. The
Guelfs, or anti-imperialists, refused to
-9-
acknowlege Philip, and, in April of the same year, had
chosen as king Otto IV, son of Henry the Lion of the House
of Brunswick, and nephew of King Richard of England. Pope
Innocent declared in favour of Otto, but civil war broke out
between the rivals and for some time the cause of Philip
triumphed. In the summer of 1207 Innocent sent two papal
legates to Germany to release Philip from the ban of
excommnication previously pronounced against him and
prepardd to expouse his cause. But the assassination of
Philip in 1208 put an end to the hopes of his supporters,
and at a Diet held at Frankfort in November of the same year
Otto was acknowledged king by the princes of Germany. The
Pope then invited Otto to come to Rome to receive the
imperial crown, and he was crowned Emperor in St. Pete?s on
4th October 1209. Before his coronation he took a solemn
oath to acknowlege the Pope as overlord of Sicily, to leave
the Chruch in the peaceful possession of Spoleto, Ancona,
and the territories of the Countess Matilda, and to grant
freedom in ecclesiastical elections. Otto was no sooner in
possession of the Imperial crown than he violated this
treaty with the Pope, refused to acknowledge the latter’s
claim to the territories of Matilda, and determined to
recover for the Empire all the property which Innocent ifi
had annexed to the Chuch. In November 1210 Innocent issued a
sentence of excommunication and deposition against Otto, and
in the following year the young Frederick II, whose rights
had been previously set aside, was chosen King of the
Rornans(20).
In 1212 Frederick entered Germany. On the way there he had
met Philip Augustus and formed an alliance with him, and it
was King Philip who solved his immediate problems in his
German realm. The battle of Bouvines in 1214 broke the power
of Otto and made Frederick master of Germany. But Frederick
was half Sicilian in blood and more so in taste. he found
Germany
-10-
a cold, damp, gloomy country with altogether too many swamps
and forests (21) .
Frederick II became familiar with many tongues, and was
versed in many literatures. With advising life his personal
habits grew more and more oriental. His character and Policy
can best be studied in his favourite Sicilian and South
Italian homes. He had the greatest difficulties in
maintaining his Position both agaist the untamed descendants
of the old Arab lords of Sicily, and against the fierce and
turbulent feudal aristocarcy which had come in with the
Normans. In 1217 were taken up with renewed struggles aginst
he Arabs in Sicily. It was not till after and almost
constant fight between 1221-25 that Frederick succeeded in
entirely effecting their subjection. He then strove to
divide his Arab subjects by transporting a large number of
them to the desolate town of Lucera, and thier were more
than 20.000 men-at-arms (22).
The ruined city was rebuilt on a magnificent scale for its
Arab inhabitants. Workers in steel and weavers of silk made
the city wealthy and prosperous, and the grateful Arabs
showed unwavering fidelity to thier sympathetic conqueror.
The Emperor frequently visited Lucera, where he delighted to
live the very life of his oriental subjects. The Arabs were
Frederik’s personal slave and dependents, whom he protected.
They were doughtly warriors, who were willing to fight for
him in his Italian wars. Moreover their layalty was superior
to the terrors of papal pan, and their arms proved an
admirable counterpoise to the fierce Norman aristocracy,
which, allying itself with te Papacy(23).
In 1215 Frederick had taken the cross to lead the fifth
Crusade, but Pope Inocente granted him leave to postpone the
Crusade till he had put the affairs
- 11 -
of Germany in order. Frederick still delayed. He had
Promised the Papacy to
hand over the throne of Sicily to his young son Henry. In
the same year Frederick had been crowned king of the Romans
at Aachen. In 1219 frederick prepared to proceede to Rome to
receive the Imperial crown. Frederick’s failure to carry out
his intention to the Holy land was publicly reproved by the
Pope as a cause of the disastrous issue of the fifth
crusade. In 1222 it was arranged that he should marry
Isabella doughter of king John of Jerusalem, who was heiress
to the kingdom through her mother. The marriage was
celebrated in November 1225 in the Cathedral at Brindisi(24).
Frederick therupon claimed the title king of Jerusalem in
virtue of his wife’s lineage and in spite of her father’s
protests. Extensive preparations were commenced for a
Crusade which was to start in the summer of 1227. But again,
at last moment, the Emperor’s departures was postponed on
account of the state of his health. The Pope Gregory IX
(1227-41) regarded this as a excuse and launched a bull of
excommunications against the emperor (25)
.
About that time the Ayubite house was deteriorating bad
terms, al-Kamil learned that the Emperor had Just married
Yolanda (Isabella), the daughter of John of Brienne and hold
the title of the king of Jerusalem, Al-Kamil decieded to
send an embassy headed by a subtle diplomat, the emir Fakhr
al-Din Ibn Sheykh al-Sheuokh. The latter was amazed wehen he
arrived in Palermo: yes, everything they said about
Frederick was ture. He spoke and wrote Arabic perfectly, he
felt unconcealed admiration for Moslem civilization, and he
had nothing but contempt for the barbarous West, especially
for the Pope df Rome. His closest collaborators were Arabs,
and so were the soldiers of his palace guard; at time of
prayer, they bosed dowed in
-12-
the direction of Mecca. This man of inquring mind, who had
spednt his entire youth in Sicily, then a major centre of
Arab sciences, felt that he had little in common with the
dull and fanatical Franj. The voice of the muezzin rang out
across his kingdom unimpeded(26).
Fakhr al-Din Soon became a friend and confidant of
Frederick. Through him, close links were forged between the
Germanic Emperor and the Sultan of Cairo. The two monarchs
exchanged letters in which they discussed the logic of
Aristotle, the immortality of the soul, and the genesis of
the universe. When al-Kamil learned of his correspondent’s
passion for observing animal behaviour, he sent him bears,
apes, and dromedaries, as wll as an elephant which the
Emperor entrusted to the Arab caretaker of his private zoo.
The Sultan was more than a little content to discover an
enlightened Western leadr who, like himself, understood the
futility of these endless religous wars. he therefore
unhesitalingly told Frederick of his desire for him to come
to the orient in the near future, adding that he would be
happy to see the Emperor in possession of Jerusalem(27).
This outburst of generosity becomes more comprehensible if
we rernbmber tht at the time the offer was made, the holy
city beinged not to al-kamil but to his brother al-Mu’azam,
whith whom the ruler of Cairo had just falen out. Al-Karnil
felt that the occupation of Palestine by his ally Frederick
would create a buffer state protecting him from any
undertakings in which al-Mu’azam might indulge. In the long
run, a reinvigorated kingdom of Jerusalem could also
effectively interpose itself between Egypt and the warrior
peoples of Asia, for the threat from the quarter was now
looming. A fervent Moslem would never have so coldly
contemplated abandoning Jerusalem, but al-Kamil was quite
different from his under Saladin. He
-13-
regarded the question of Jeruslaem as primarily political
and military; the religous aspect was relevant only to the
extent that it influenced public opinion. Frederik, who felt
no closer to Christianity than to Islam, took an identical
attitude. If he wanted to take possession of the holy city,
it was not to commune with his thoughts at the tomb of
Christ, but because a success of that kind would strengthen
his position in his struggle against the Pope, who had jsut
excommunicated him as punishment for having postponed his
expedition to the East
(28).
When the Emperor disembarked at Acre in September 1228 he
was convinced that with al-Kamil’s help he would be able to
enter Jerusalem in triumph, thus silencing his enemies. In
fact, the ruler of Cairo found himself in an extremely
ernbfrrassing position, for recent events had completely
redrawn the regional map. Al-Mutazam had died suddenly in
November 1227, bequeating Damascus to his son al-Nasir, a
young man lacking in all experience. Al-Karnil, who could
now contemplate seizing Damascus and Palestine himself, was
no longer interested in establishing a buffer state between
Egypt and Syria. In other words, al-Kamil was not greatly
pleased at the prospect of the arrival of Frederick, who in
all friendship would lay claim to Jerusalem and its
environs. A man of honour like al-Kamil could not renege on
his promises. but he could try to stall, telling the emperor
that the situation had suddenly changed(29).
Frederick, who had come with a mere three thousand men,
thought that the taking of Jerusalem would be no more than a
formality. He therefore did not dare attempt a policy of
intimidation, but instead sought to cajole al-Kamil. I am
your friend, he wrote to him. It was iou who urged
inc to make this trip. The Pope and all the kings jL
the West now know f my
-14-.
mission. If I
return empty-handed, I
will lose much prestige. For pii$c sake, give me
Jerusalem, that I may hold my head high!
A1-ICaniil was
touched, and so he sent his Mend Fakhr
al-Din to Frederick, bearing gifts and a double
- edged reply. I too. he wrote, must
take account of opinion. If I deliver Jerusalem to
you, it could lead not only to a condermnation of my
actions by the caliph, but also to a religious
insurrection that would threaten my throne. For
each side, it was matter of saving face.
Frederick Implored Fskhr al-Din to find an honourable way
out. The latter, with the sultan’s agreemnt,
threw Frederick a lifeline, ‘The people could
never accept the surrender of Jerusalem,
won at such cost by Saladin, without a battle. On
the other hand, if agreement on the holy city could
avoid bloody warfare...’ The Emperor understoocL He
smiled, thanked his Mend of his advice, and then
ordered his small force of troops to
prepare for combat. At the end of November
1228, as Frederick marched with great pomp towards
the port of JaffP, al-Kamil spread the word
throughout the country that it was necessary to
prepare for a along and bitter war
against the powerful sovereign from the west(31).
A few weeks later, with no battle having been
joined, the text of an acdord was ready: Frederick obtained
Jerusalem and a corridor linking it to
the coast, as well as Bethlehem. Wzareth, the
environs of Tyre, and the powerful fortress of
Tibnin, east of Tyre. In the holy city itself, the
Moslems preserved a presence in the Haram al-Sharif
sector, where their principal sanctuaries
were clustered32. Frederick might rebuild the
walls of the city, but the concession was made to him
presonally. All prisoners on both sides were to be
released. The treaty was to last ten years by
the Christian calendar and ten years and five months
and fourty days by the Moslems(33).
-15-
The treaty was
signed on 18 February 1229 by Frederick and by the
ambassador Fakhr al-Din, in the name of the sultan. A month
later, the Emperor went to Jerusalem, its Moslem populations
had been evacuated by al-Kamil, except for some religious
leaders left in charge of the Islamic places of worship.
Frederick was received by Shams al-Dine, the qadi of
Nablus, who gave him the keys to the city and acted as a
sort of guide. The qadi himself related what happened
during this visit(34).
When the Emperor, king of the Franj, came to Jerusalem with
his Moslems subjects, I remained with him, as al-Kamil had
requested of me. I entered Haram al-Sharif with him, where
he toured the small mosques. Then we went to al-Aqsa mosque,
whose architecture he admired, as well as the Dome of the
Rock. He was fascinatewd by the beauty of the minbar, and
climbed the staris to the top. When he descended, he took me
by the hand and led inc back towards al-Aqsa. There he found
a priest who, Bible in hand, was trying to enter the mosque.
Furious, the Emperor began to browbeat him. What brings you
to this place’? By God, if one of you dares step in here
again without permission. I will pluck out his eyes!. The
priest departed trembling. That night, I asked the muezzin
not to call the prayer, in order not to inconvenience the
Emperor. But when I saw him the next day, the Emperor asked
me, Qadi, why didn’t the muezzins call the prayer as
usual?’ I answered:” It is I who prevented them from doing
so, out of repect for your Majesty, ‘You should not have
acted thus’, the Emperor said, ‘for if I spent this night in
Jerusalem, it was above all to hear the muezzin’s call in
the night (35).
- 16-
Whatever was said about the treaty in East and West,
specially the Pope who sent, it was claimed to al.Kamel
incited him not to deliver Jerusalem to the Emperor
Frederick, we can say that the later was secceeded by the
Moslem’s aid in which all Crusades had failed except the
first Crusade. We can remark the civilization dialogue and
interaction.
During Frederick’s absence, Pope Gregory had devastated
Apulia with fire and sword. His dead wife’s father, John of
Brienne, the ex-king of Jerusalem acted as captain of the
Papal mercenaries against him. On Frederick’s sudden
reappearance, the Papal troops were driven over the frontier
and the Patrimony of St. Peter itself threatened by
the victorious Empeor36. Gregory found that his rashness had
brought him into an impossible position, and was glad to
accept the mediation which Herman of saiza the Grand Master
of Teutonic Order (1210-1239) and Ducke Leopold of Austria
now proffered. on July, peace was made between Pope and
Emperor at San German in 1230, In return for a promise to
protect the Pope’s dominions, a confirmation of the papal
rights over Sicily, and Frederick was released of the papal
excommunication (37) .
The researcher can say that, after Frederick’s success in
the east, supported by Moslem’s aid, the Pope Gregory was
obliged to be at peace with the Emperor and absolved him
from the excommunication.
In 1235 Frederick was recalled to Germany through a
rebellion of his eldest son, Henry, who had been elected
king of Germany. The rebellion was soon crushed, and Henry
was sent as a prisoner to Naples. The Lombard cities hadbeen
concerned in this rebellion, and in 1236 Frederick began a
new campaign against them(38).
- 1 7-
The Emperor found a ready welcome from Eccelin da Romans,
who now aspired to appropriate the whole region between the
Alps and the Adige, and soon made himself lord of Padua and
Treviso. Recalled over the mountains by the Austrian
troubles, Frederick again appeared in Italy in 1237. But a
small portion of his army came from Germany. He relied for
the most part on the Ghibelline barons of Italy, on Eccelin
and is follwing, and on his trusty Arabs from Lucera. The
Lombard league sought in vain to withstand his progress,
Frederick’s clever strategy soon outgeneralled the civic
host, and on 27 November 1237 the whole army of the league
was signally defeated at Cortenuova. The Emperor cleebrated
his success by a sort of Roman triumph through the streets
of Cremona, with his famous elephant with its Arab
driviers on its back
(39).
Soon after Frederick granted the dominion of Sardinia to his
bastard son Enzio, who had wedded the heiress of the Island,
Which the Pope Gregory IX claimed to belong to the Roman See. The
Pope now joined Venice and the Lombard cities against
Frederick,(40 )
and on Palm Sunday 1230, again solemnly
excommunicated the emperor, and absolved his subjects from
their allegaince(41).
Many princes of the Empire supported Frederick, and when, in
February 1240 the latter invaded the states of the chruch,
the Pope found himself almost without an ally-still showing
a courageous spirit, however, he organized a solemn
procession in Rome, and roused the Ramans to join in a
Crusade against the Emperor. Although Frederick did not
advance on Rome, he laid waste the surrounding country, and
caused all so-called Crusaders whom he captured to be
ruthlessly executed. In 1241 the Pope tried to hold a
council in Lateran to renew his ban, but the Emperor fobade
the meeting and prepared to advance on Rome, But Gergory IX
died in August in the same year. On the death of the Pope
the emperor suspended hostitities against
-18-
Rom, and issued a manifesto declaring that his quarrel had
not been with the church, but with the deceased Pope. Pope
Celestine IV hold the Roman see 1241, but he died in the
same year after he had desired to bring about a lasting
peace between the Empire and Papacy(42).
The Roman See remained vacant for one year and seven months.
As the princes of Europe began to blame Frederick for the
prolonged vacancy, he became himself anxious to press on the
election. At-length in June 1243 Innocent IV was elected
Pope (1243-1254). As Frederick earnestly desired to be
released from the ban of excomunication, he promised to
restore the states of the church, and to recognize the
spiritual supermacy of the Pope over all temporal princes. A
treaty was drawn up between Frederick and the Pope, but as
the latter still delayed the promised absolution this treaty
was never confirmed(43). About this time Frederick*s Arab
hordes were again ravaging Campana. In June 1244 Innocent
fled from Rome to Genoa, Whence he crossed the Alps and took
up his abode in the free Imperial city of Lyons(44).
In June 1245 Pope Innocent held a General Concil at Lyon,
which was attended by bishops from France, Spain, Italy,
England, Scotland, and Ireland, but very few from Germany.
At this Council the Pope excommunicated the Emperor anew,
and declared him deposed from the Imperial throne. Frederick
then issued a manifesto summoning the princes of Europe to
his aid against the Pope. At an interview which took place
between King Louis of France and Pope Innocent in the
monastery of Cluny, the King urged the Pope to make pease
with the Emperor. But the Pope now refused to agree with
Frederick on any terms, on the plea that the latter would
not keep his word. On 21 st April 1246 the Pope wrote from
Lyons to the German princes, recommending them to choose a
new King of Germany, in the
-19-
person of Henry, Landgrave of Thuringia. Although the
majority of German princes still adhered to the Emperor. the
Archbishops of Cologne, Trèves, and Bremen, assisted by the
Bishops of Metz, Spires, and Strasburg, met near Wtirzburg,
and anointed Henry King of Gernany on ascension Day 1246.
War now began in Germany between Henry and the Emperor’s
son, Conard, but in February 1247 Henry was killed while
besieging Ulm. On the recommendation of Pope Innocent,
Willilamn, Earl of Holand, a Youth of twenty, was chosen to
succeed Henry as king of Germany(45).
In 1250 fortune smiled once more on his cause., The
Ghibellines of Lombardy at last won the upper hand. ‘Good
news came from beyond the Alps of Conrad’s triumphs over
William of Holland. Frederick himself spent most ‘of the
year at Foggia, surrounded by his faithful Arabs, in whom he
still palced his chief trust. Towards the end of the year he
started once more for the north, but he was seized with a
mortal illness before he had travesed many stages. He took
to his bed al Fiorention, a hunting lodge few miles short of
Lucera. An ancient prediction of his astrologers that he
would die near iron gates at a town called Flora further
troubled his spirit. ‘This is the spot’, he said, ‘long ago
foretold to me where I must die., The will of God be done’.
He calmly drew up a will bequeathing to Conrad both the
Empire and the kingdom, while his favouite bastard, Manfred,
who carefully ministered to his last hours, was to act as
his regent in his brother’s absence. On 19th December he
died, either, as his friends believed, calmly and
religiously, clad in the white robe of the Cistercians and
reconciled to the Chruch by the Archbishoph of Palermo, or a
prey to hideous despair and misery, as the Friars his
enemies loved to imagine, he was buried beside his Norman
ancestors at Palermo. where his tomb may still be seen. With
him expired the
-20-
Roman Empire as a real claimant to any share of the rule of
the world, though for another generation faction raged, more
fierecely than ever as the disposal of its heritage(46)
.
The Arabs remained on good terms with the Eomperor Frederick
till his last days, Joinville tells us a funny story during
the events of Louis IX king of France (1226-1270) in Egypt,
Joinville was on board one of the captured ships, saved his
own and his comrades’ lives by letting it be understood that
he was the king’s cousin, and when he questioned about it by
an Egytian admiral it was untrue. The admiral asked him if
by any chance he happened to be related to the emperor
Frederick of Germay. He replied that he had reason believe
that his mother was his first cousin; whereupon the admiral
remarked that he loved him all the more for it, and treated
him very well(47).
When king Conrad of Germany heard of the death of the
Empeor, he prepared with a great company to pass into Apulia
and Sicily, to take possession of the said Kingdom, of the
which Manfred, his bastard brother, had become viar-general,
and was ruling it altogether, save only the cities of Naples
and of Capua, the which had rebelled after the death of
Frederick, and were returned to obedience to the church; as
also many cities of Lombard, and Tuscany, on occasion of
death of the emperor, returned to the obedience of the
church(48).
Conrad arrived in Italy, in 1251 by sea with an army and was
joined with a body of Arabs, who had been allowed by the
late Emperor to settle in Sicily. With their aid he soon
recovered the rebellious cities of Apulia. Capus and Naples
which resisted was taken by storm, but Pope Innocent, who
refused to recognize any of Frederick’s heirs offerd the
crown of Sicily first to Richard, Earl of Cornwall, brother
of Henry Ill of England (1216 - 1271)
-21-
and afterwards to
Charles of Anjou brother of Louis IX of Franc.
Both these prince rejected the offer but Henry UI worte
to the Pope requesting that the Kindgome of Sicily might
be bestowed on Edmund, his second son. To ths
Innocent readily agreed, and in order to carry
on the war against Conrad, Henry ifi was
forced to extort large sums in taxes from his English
subjects(49).
Before the end of 1253 the Pope was strong
enought to return to Rome. Active hostilites were now
threatened. Mendicant Friars viorously proclaimed the
Crusade agisnt Conrad, and in the spring 1254
Innocent renewed his exommunicatio. But in May 1254
Carrad died suddenly,
(50)when only twenty six years old,
leaving Conradin, a child of two as his heir, and in
his disturst of Manfred, entrusting the regency to
the Margrave Berthold of Hohenburg, the later found himself
so powerless that he cheerfully gave up the regency
and Mated was put up in his place(51).
Now Manfred sent an embassy to the Pope
begging him to cease from hostilities, and
to take Gonradin under his protection. The Pope
appears to have sent a favourable replay. Manfred then
declared his willingness to surrender the
kingdom of Sicily to the Pope, and to submit to his
terms. A treatry of peace was accordingly made
betweeh them, the Pope solemnly reinvesting Manfred
in all the dignities which he had
held during his father lifetime, in spite of
arrangement made with henry UI of England(52).
Nothing was said as to the rights of Conradin,
and in October Innocent himself went on
progress through the cities of the kingdom, and took up
his quarters at Naples, where he posed as feudeal
lord of the realm, the disposal of which rested entirely
in his hands. Manfred had hoped that his
submission would e followed by the recognition, if not of
his nephew, at least of himself as King
-22-
of Sicily. He now saw that he had been tricked by the Pope,
and that the king whom the Pope would acknowlege was not
himself but the young Edmund of England. He rode hastily to
the trusty Arabs of Lucera, and with their help gathered
together an army to withstand the aggerssions of the Pope.
Before any decisive action cauld take place, Innocent died
on December 1254 at Naples(53).
Alexander IV (1254-61) was elected Pope in the same months
(1254). He found himself committed to carry on the same
policy of opposiiton towards the Hohenstafens. In March 1255
he excommunicated Manfred, and afterwards concluded a treaty
with Henry III, by which he comfirmed the grant of Sicily
made by his predecessor to Edmund, Henry’s second son(54).
In the meantime Manfred, who was now the master of Sicily,
Apulia, and Calabria, was personally popular; he had two
sets of soldiers on whom he could rely, his Arabs and his
German mercenaries. Manfred continued to increase, and a
Papal army, which had taken the field against him, was
forced to disband for lack of provision(55). In 1256 William
of Holland, who had been chosen king of Germany, was
murdered in Frisia, and a double election took place in
Germany. One party chose Richard of Cornwall brother of
Henry III and the other Alphonso, king of Castile. Richard
who was possessed of great wealth, obtained the support of
the archbishops of cologne and Maitz, and afterwards of Pope
Alexander, and was crowned king of Germany at
Aix-la-Chapelle(56).
Giovanni Villani told us that Manfred had planned to murder
Conradin but the plan failed(57). Before Manfred knew the
truth he had assumed the title of king of Sicily and was
crowned at Palermo in August 1258. When it became known in
Italy that Conradin was still alive, Manfred promised to
-23-
recognize his title to the crown of Sicily. In the meantime
the cities of Lombardy renounced their allegiance to the
Pope and joined Manfred. The Pope summoned Manfred to appear
before him, and on his refusal to do so or to submit to the
Pop&s terms, the sentence of excommunication was renewed
against him(58).
On May 1261 Pope Aleander had died and was succeeded by
Urban IV (1261-1264). In the meantime, in Germany the war
countinued between Alfons of Castile and Richard of
Corn-wall, rival Kings of Germany. The Pope offered to
arbitrate between them, but Richard rejected the offer and
abandoned the enterprise and so did Alfonse(59). The German
prrinces, tried of the strife, proposed to reject both
claimants and elected Conrandin. This proposal was strongly
opposed by the Pope, and threatened to excommunicate any one
who attempted to elect a member of Hohestaufen family which
had so long been inimical to the Chruch(60).
The situation became very serious for the Hohenstaufen
cause, so Manfred bent to the strom ad accepted the claim of
the Pope, on condition that he should become the Popets
vicar. The Pope came down in triumph and entered Capua.
Manfred was ill at ease; he felt that he was encompassed by
enemies and traitors, but trusting in his own adroitness he
hoped to come out unscathed. He took his way to Lucera where
Frederick had stationed the Arabs whom he removed from
Sicily. Ever since then the town had been a Arab stronghold
and devoted to the Hohenstaufens(61).
John the Morr, a henchman of the old Emperor, was governor.
There more than anywhere else. Manfred felt that he would be
safe. He expected to be received by John the Moor with open
arms. But when he heard that Manfred was a fugitive, and
that fortune smiled upon the Papal cause, he put
-24-
one of his household, another Arabic, Marchisio, in his
place as custodian of the town, made him swear that he would
let no one, not even prince Manfred, enter during his
absence, and posted off to make terms with the Pope, sending
false word to Manfred that he was going on his account.
There seemed to be no loyalty to a losing cause anywhere in
the Hohenstaufen dominions. Nevertheless, even after Manfred
heard of John the Moor’s treachery, he still entertained a
hope of getting Lucera. That was his only chance. In Lucera
was his father’s treasure; and there, if anywhere, were
friends, for the Arabs could hope for but little from the
Pope. He sent scouts to learn what the feelings of the
garrison were toward him, The scouts reported that they
entertained great good will and marvelled that he had not
gone there sonner. One hearing this, for security’s sake, as
he could not tell whether to trust the peasants of the
country, he gave out that he was going south, and with very
few attendants rode north at night roward Lucera. It was
dark and rainy, the little band could not even see one
another, and had to ride side by side and keep calling out,
in order to stay together. They lost the road and wandered
off into the fields. Luckily one of the party had been a
master of the hunt for the late Emperor and recognized
familiar ground. He managed to lead them to a deserted
hunting-lodge, where, somewhat imprudently, they made a big
fire, dried their clothes, and spent the rest of the night,
both man and beast thankful for repose. Hostile troops, some
belonging to the Papal army, some in the pay of Hohenberg,
were only a little way to the right and to the left. Before
dawn they were off again and rode to within a mile or two of
Lucera. Here Manfred stationed his troop, while he and three
soldiers, one of whom spoke Arabic, rode on to the town. The
guards were on the alert; so Manfred halted and the soldier
who knew Arabic rode alone to the gate. There he called
up: “Your Prince, the Emperor’s son, is here, open the
gate.”
-25-.
The guards hesitated,
and Manfitd rode up. Still
they were doubtful, and sent a man to notify
Marchisio, the castellan. Then one of them
spoke up:
“Marchisio was charged by John the Moor not to
let any one, even the Prince,
enterthecity,andhewillnotgivethekeys,butonthecontrary,hewilldoafl
he can to keep the Prince from coming in. The
best thing Is for the Prince to get in any way
possible, for once in, all will be easy”. It
happened that there was a gutter under the gate to
carry away the rain-water’ and when the gate was shut
there was just space for a man to crawl in on his
belly. The same guard called down: “Let the
Prince come in by the hole under the gate; let us
get him in any way we can.” Manfred dismounted,
and was about to lie down and crawl in. when the
guards, mortified at the sight, cried: “Never
shall our Prince enter the city like that.” They
broke open the gate, picked Mated up in
their arms, and carried him triumphantly into the town.
Marchisio rushed out to stop them, but the crowd
would not tolerate disrespect; they forced the
castellan off his horse, down upon his hess,
and made him kiss Manfred’s feet; they then conducted
Mated with cheers into the royal palce. From
this. time Manfred’s fortunes rose. His posession of
the royal treasure enabled him to hire troops and to
seduce detachments of the enemy. He gained a victory
over one division of the papal army, and frightened
the cardinal in command so badly that he fled in terror. Ths
must have been bitter news to the Pope in Naples(62).
When he died in May 1261. Pope Urban IV was elected
Pope (1261-64). He followed the policy of his
predecessors in attempting to drive Manfred
from Sicily and subject the kingdome to the Apostolic
See. He repeated the offer to Edmund but he failed,
so he offered the crown to Charles of Anjou,
who had previously rejected it, but who was
now pravaild on the accept it and came to Rome with a
strong army to defend the holy Church(63)
.
-26-
Without any delay, Charles set out with his host towards the
kingdom of Aplia. Giovanni Villani gave a good details about
the battlefield and the battle group and said; Immediatly
Manfred gave all his care to defened the passes of the
kingdom, and at the pass at the bridge at Cepperano, he
placed the count Giordano and the count of Caserta with many
followers, both foot and, horse; and in San Germano he
placed a great part of his German and Apulian barons, and
all the Arabs of Lucera with bows and cross-bows, and a
great store of arrows, trusting more in this defence than in
any other, by reason of the strong place and the possition
which has on the one side high mountains, and on the other
marshes and stagnant waters, and was furnished with victuals
and with all things for more than two years. We can remarke
here(64).
Giovani added, in spite of Manfred preparations for war, he
sent to Charles to treat with him concerning a truce or
peace but the later refused and said to the ambassadors, “Go
to the Sutlan of Lucera - Sultan of the Arabs - I will have
nothing but battle, and in that battle einther he shall slay
me, or I him’T, and took the pass of Cepperano to storm the
city of San Germana. King Charl&s followers took the town by
assault. It was held to be very great marvel, by reason of
the strength of the town, and rather the work of God than
the human strength, forasmuch as there were more than 1000
horsemen within and more than 5000 footmen, among which
there were many Arabs archers from Lucera; but by reason of
a scuffle which arose the might before, as it pleased God,
between the Crislians and the Moslems, in which they were
vanquished, the next day they were not faithful in the
defence of the town, and this among others was truly one of
the cause why they lost the town of San Germano on February
1266(65).
-27-
After the loose of San Germano, Manfred and his army
withdrew to the city of Benivento, as a stronghold, in order
that he might give battle on his own ground. He arrived at
the foot of the city in the valley over against the city,
distant by the space of two miles from the bank of the river
Caloro which flows at te foot of Benivento. Manfred and his
troops passed over the bridge which crosses the river into
the plan which is called S. Maria della Grandella to the
place called the Pietra a Roseto; here he formed three lines
of battle or troops, the first was of German, in whom he had
much confidence, who numbered fully 1200 horse. The second
was Tuscans and Lombards, and also of Germans, to the number
of 1000 horse. The third which Manfred led, was of Apulians
with the Arabs of Lucera, which was of 1400 horse, without
the foot soldiers and the Arab bowmen which were in great
numbers(66). The battle took place on 26 February 1266, when
Manfred, deserted by his followers, met his death by rushing
into the midst of the enemy, and a few days after, his wife
and his children and his sister, who were in Lucera of the
Arabs in Apulia, were delivered as prisioners to king
Charles, and they afterwards died in his prison(67).
Beside the fidelity of the Arabs in Sicily and Lucera to
Manfred, he was in good terms with the Arabs in the East.
The Egypt court kept up the friendship forged with his
father Frederik II(68)
Ibn Wasil the historian told that he
was sent by Sultan Baibars (1260-1277) to the king Manfred
in Sicily in July 1261, he said that he met the king more
than once, he found him distinguished in sciences, studies
ten essaies of Euclid. Ibn Wasil added, near Sicily the city
of logara (Lucera), all its inhabitants, which had come from
Sicily, are Moslems they establised their prayers of fridy
since his father Frederick. Manfred started to build an
institute of human sciences. All his subjects in the court
are Moslems. in his camp they announced for al-Azan
-28-
and prayars. The historian gives us a good account of about
the excommunication and the Papacy through Manfred’s eyes69.
Baibars still in good terms with Manfred, when he becanme
victorious in the Lavant in 1265, he hastened to write to
Manfred(70).
Charles’ conquest of the kingdom of Sicily cut the course of
Italian history in two. The great questions that troubled
the peace of Italy for generations were decided. The German
Emperor were not to be masters of Italy; the Empire was not
to reduce the Papacy to a dependent bishopric, the Italian
cities of the north were to be free to establish such local
sovereignty as they chose; the mainland south of the river
Garigliano was to be under a line of French kings; and the
Papcy was to exchange its dread of Germany for subservice to
France. Manfred the usurper was gone; but the lawful heir of
the Hohenstaufens was still living, young Conradin, a boy of
fifteen(71).
Before the year was out envoys from the faithful cities, of
Lombardy, Tuscany, Verona, Pavia, Siena and Pisa went to
Germay to stir up Conradion to cross into Italy to take away
Sicily and the Kingdom from Charles. And so it was done; for
immediately in Apulia there rose in rebellion. Lucera of the
Arabs, Aversa and many place in Sicily(72).
Conradin set forth from Germany Early in 1268, with him the
young Frederick Duck of Austria, many barons and good
men-at-arms from Germany in his train, Conradin went first
to Verona, passed through Lombardy, and by the way of Pavia
where he was welecomed, received the support of the
Ghibelline cities of the north, and in spite of the Pope’s
solemn excommunication, he proceeded to Rome from Genoa
where he was warmly welcomed(73). To strengthen Charles’
position, Pope Clement IV
-29-
(1265-1268) gave him a larger standing, mamed him “keeper of
the peace in Tuscany(74).
Conradin proceeded from Rome on into Apulia, hoping to join
hands with the revolted Arabs of Lucera(75). Charles Wanted to
hinder the movements of Conradino, so he sent his marshal
William of Belselve with 500 of his horsemen for this
purpose, but he failed by an ambush of Comadin’s army on
25th June 1268. Conradin departed from Rome on 10th day of
August, he took the way of the mountains between Abruzzi and
Campana by Valle of Celle, where there was no guard nor
garrison; and without any hindrance, he passed on and came
into the plain of San Valentino in the country of
Tagliacozzo(76). The critical point of the war-as a
Crsade-became betwen Conradin of the head of the Chibellines
and Charles on the head of the Guelfs which supported the
Pope(77).
King Charles, hearing how Conradin was departed from Rome
with his folloers to enter into the kingdom, broke up his
camp at Lucera, and with his people came against Conradino.
The later formed his followers in three troops, one of
Germans, the second of Italians and the third was of
Spaniards, where was captain Don Henry of Spain. A small
battle was occured between the two parties and a part of
Charlest army was defeated and the stander of charles were
beaten down(78), but on 23rd August Conradin suffered a
disastrous defeat at Tagliacozzo, near lake Celano. Conradin
escaped with a few hundred horses and made his way back to
Rome, he fled to the coast, hoping to put to sea, but he and
his friends were caught and taken in chains to genazzano, a
mountain fortress near Pa1estrine(79). He was given a trail at
Naples. At last he was executed on 29the October 1268, along
with his young friend Frederick the Duke of Austria in the
Market-place at Naples(80). Conradin was the last of his race,
and his death ensured the Guelfic triumph
-30-
in Italy, Charles became the master of the kingdom of
Sicily, but the Arab’s garrison at Lucera held out until
August 1269, when it was forced by starvation to surrender.
The fall of Lucera brought to an end almost thrity years of
Crusades against the Hohenstaufens and their suporters(81)
.
To sum up, both Sicily and Apulia acted as two center for
Arabic and Islamic civilization. When the Normans conquered
these two regions, they appreciated the civilizations of the
local Arab and Moslem population. The Normans depended on
Arabs and Moslem for their expertise in many fields,
including architecture and science - El-idrisi writer of the
book in geography, was an inhabitant of this area of the
world. Arabs and Moslems were also arnployed as soldires and
were involved in the Normans war against the Byzantine
Empire in 1185.
The Hohenstaufen adopted the same policy toward the Arab and
Moslem population. Frederick II moved a number of Arabs from
Sicily to Lucera, a city which he rebuilt and made into a
military base that gave him a lifetime support against his
enemies, expecially the Papacys.
Those Arabs, Whether Moslems, Christians, did not take heed
of the Pope’s excommunication act.
It became abvious that these Arabs remained loyal to the
Emperor, and his sons who succeeded him until the end of the
Hohenstaufen era . The relations with the Arabs of the East
were also significant, starting with the sixth Crusade
between Frederick and el-Kamil, and until the end of the
Hohenstaufen reign. These were relations of friendship, that
were developed into civilization interaction between the
East and the West. These ralations also made it possible for
the Huhenstaufer to face the exommunication act issued by
the Pope aginst rulers who belonged to this family.
-31-
Footnotes
1- Einhard, The Life of Charleman, Penguin, 1974, P. 81.
2- Ostrogorsky, History of the Byzantine State, tran. Joan
Hussey, Oxford,
1956, p. 165.
3- Painter, S., A History of the Middle Ages, New York,
1954, P. 45.
4- Hasking, The Normans in European History, New York, 1959,
p. 201.
5- Henderson, Select Historical Documents of Middle Ages,
London 1910, pp. 361-4.
6- Mckilliam, A Chronicle of the Popes, London 1912, pp. 240
-1, Hasking, op. cit. pp. 204-5.
7- Mckilliam, op. cit., pp. 268-9.
8- Painter, op. cit., pp. 197-8.
9- Hasking, op. cit., pp. 2 10-1.
10- Stephenson, Mediaeval History, New York 1951, p. 333.
11- LaMonte, The World of the Middle Ages, New York, 1949,
p. 281.
12- Hasking, op. cit.. pp. 238-9.
13- Ibn Jubayer, a-Rehla (Voyage), Beirut, 1979, pp. 305ff.
(Arabic rext), Choniates, N.. 0 city of Byzantium, tran.
Harry J. Magoulias, Detroit, 1984.. p. 165.
14- LaMonte, op. cit., p. 273, Otto of freising, The Deeds
of Frederick Barbarosso, tran. Charles Christopher Mierow,
New York, 1966, p. 338 and note 14.
15- La-Monte, op. cit., pp. 283-4.
16- Mckilliam, op. cit., 294.
17- Ernoul, Chronique d’Ernoul et de Bernard le Trésorier
(ed Mas Latrie) Paris, 1871, pp. 248-9.
18- Mckillam, op. cit.. p. 289.
-32-
19- Ibid, pp. 299-300.
20- Ibid, pp. 301-2.
21- Painter, op. cit, 284. V
22- Giovanni Villani, Choniche Florentine, tran. Rose E.
Selfe, London,
1890, pp. 131-2.
23- Tout, The Empire and the Papacy (918-1273) London,
1954, pp.
359-61.
24- Eracles, Estoire d’Eracles, in R.H.C.O, II, pp
357-8.
25- Roger of Wendover of History, T.J.A. Giles, London,
1849, II, p. 409.
26- Ibn Wasil, Mofarige al-Korop IV, Cairo 1974, p. 248.
27- Ibid, pp. 206-7. al- Maqrisi, Asslouk, Cairo, 1934, vol.
I, Part I, p. 232.
28- Maalouf. A., The Crusades Through Arab Eye, tran. by Jon
Rothschild, London, 1984, pp. 226-9.
29- Ibn Wasil, op. cit. IV, pp. 234-5, al-Maqrisi, op. cit.,
vol. part I, pp.
228-9.
30- Roger of Wendover, op. cit., II, 512.
31- Maalouf. A., op. cit., p. 228.
32- Ibn Wasil, op. cit IV, p. 241.
33- Al-Maqrisi, op. cit., Vol. I, Part I, pp. 228-30,
Runciman, A History of. the Crusades, Cambridge, 1952 III,
P. 187.
34- Ibn Wasil, op. cit., IV, P. 244.
35- Ibid. p. 244-5, Sibt ibn al-Djauzi, Miraat a-Zarnan,
Hydar-Abed, India, Vol 2 oart II, 1952, p656. Maalouf, op.
cit., P. 229.
36- Roger of Wendover, op. cit., II, pp. 5 16-7.
37- Mckilliarn, op. cit., P. 309.
38- Sedgwick, Italy in Thirteenth Century, 2 Vols, New York,
1912, I, p.p.
26 1-2, Mckilliarn, op. cit., p. 310.
39- Tout, op. cit., pp. 38 1-2.
-33-
40- Mckilliam, op. cit, p. 310:
41- Tout, op. cit., p. 282.
42- Mckilliam. op. cit.. pp. 310-1.
43- [bid.p. 312.
44- Tout., op. cit., p. 386.
45- Mckilliam, op. cit.. p. 313.
46- Tout, op. cit., p. 391.
47- Joinvifl, The Life of Saint Louis, Penguin. 1973 pp.
244-5.
48- Giovanni Villani. op. cit.. pp. 153-4.
49- Mckilliam. op. cit., p. 314.
50- Givarmj Villani, op. cit., p. 156.
51- Sedgwick. op. cit.. I. p. 292.
52- Mckilliam. op. cit.. p. 314.
53- Tout, op. cit., pp. 480-1.
54- .Mckilliam, op. cit. p. 315. Sedgeick, op. cit., I, p.
391.
55- Mckilliam. op. cit.. p. 316.
56- Matthew of Westminster. Flowers of History, tm. C.D.
Yonge, London
1853. IL p. 354.
57- Givanni Villani, op. cit.. pp. 155-6.
58- Mckilliam. op. cit.. p. 316.
59- Giovanni Villanj. op. cit.. p. 169. Matthew of
Westrninister, op. cit., II, p. 354.
60- Mckilliam. op. cit.. p. 317.
61- Giovanni Villani, op. cit.. p. 191.
62- Sedgwick. op. cit. L pp. 395-8.
63- Giovanni Villanrij. op. cit., p. 194.
64- [bid., pp. 205-6.
-34-
65- [bid. pp. 20S9.
66- [bid. pp. 209-11.
67-Ibid,p 216.
68- Runciman, op.cit. p. 319.
69- [bn Wasil, op. cit pp. 248-51 (Arabic text).
70- Runciman, op. cit. ifi. p. 319. Ibu Wasil, op. cit. IV,
p. 248.
71- Sedgwick. op. cit.. pp. 60-1.
72- Giovanni Villani. op. cit.. pp. 228-9.
73- [bid, pp. 229-30.
74- Sedgwiclc. op. cit. IT. p. 62.
75- Tout, op. cit., p. 486.
76- Giovanni Villani, op. cit.. p. 233.
77- Sedgwick, op. cit.. p. 50.
78- Giovanni Villani. op. cit.. 234-6.
79- Sedgwick. op. cit.. II. pp. 65-7.
80- Giovanni Villani. op. cit. pp. 240 if.
81- Housley, N.. The Italian Crusades. Oxford. 1982, p. 19.
|
|
